A note on idolatry and culture

Idol worship in the Old Testament

When Moses received the 10 commandments on Mount Sinai, the first two dealt with idol worship.

3 Thou shalt have no other gods before me.

4 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:

5 Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me;

6 And shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and keep my commandments. (Exodus 20)

These are also the two commandments that the Israelites struggled with the most, as far as I can tell. Already while Moses received these commandments, the Israelites made and worshiped a golden calf. As soon as they started settling in the promised land, many of the Israelites started worshiping the local deities of the other nations there, despite the numerous warnings they had received in advance.

This is puzzling to us. Why would making and bowing down to a carved image be so tempting and so difficult to abstain from? To answer this question, I think it is important to understand the ancient Near Eastern culture. The gods (with plural ‘s’ since the monotheism of Israel was unique) had a central role in every community, for good or bad. Whenever something good happened, it was by divine favor, and whenever something went wrong, a petty god had been offended. The NRSV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible states:

The polytheism of the ancient world was not just a matter of numbers. In the ancient world identity was found in one’s community rather than in one’s individuality. Like people, gods found their identity in relationship to the group to which they belonged. Each god had a constellation of attributes, just as people have different skills and abilities. As in human communities, the community of the gods called for hierarchy. So the pantheon of the gods was characterized by a hierarchy (cosmic gods, national gods, city patrons, clan deities, ancestral deities) and by differentiation (according to their jurisdiction, manifestations and attributes). Given this cultural reality, we can surmise that it was very difficult for the Israelites to adjust to a single God spanning all levels of hierarchy and all categories of jurisdiction.

So one explanation is the difficulty of Israel to adjust to a single God. This is certainly not a challenge for us, at least in a literal sense. We may of course have many so-called idols in the form of money, status, luxury items, sports, etc. This is often the modern-day Sunday School application of the ancient problem of idol worship and certainly one way to update an ancient and obsolete problem to our time. But I think there are also other underlying factors that help explain why bowing down to an image was so natural and attractive to an ancient Israelite, that I will get back to.

As I am studying the Old Testament cover to cover this year, I also read the parts that are often omitted from the church curriculum. By all means, I don't blame those who make the church manuals. First of all, there would be 18-19 chapters to study every week. Second, the poor Sunday School teachers would have to grapple with what to us is very strange behavior by ancient Israelites, and try to explain that to a group of people puzzled by what they have read during the week. Anyway, I have gotten a stronger sense of how different things were back then. Still, if you and I were born in Palestine around 1300 BC with our exact same genes, we would obviously think and act like most people did at the time. It would be hard to argue against that. It is the society and culture in which we have been raised that make the ancient Near Eastern culture seem so foreign and strange. But it has been quite rewarding for me to try to understand how people were thinking and acting and what underlying values and motives their behavior was based on, rather than just dismissing them as weird.

There is no doubt that these people in return would find modern people, especially in the Western World, really strange. Our actions would simply not make sense to them. A couple of examples would be

• Our culture of expressive individualism would seem extremely weird, selfish and even narcissistic to an ancient faithful Israelite. How could true believers of God be so self-centered?
• Our sexualized society would be shocking to an ancient faithful Israelite. Even if the modern day heathens treat the topic of sex very casually, show much skin at the beach, etc., surely true believers of God should know better and distance themselves from this far more than they actually do?

Similarly, we ask how people who had at least heard of and perhaps even seen the miracles of God leading them into the promised land could possibly start worshiping graven images? But the examples listed above would probably be just as strange to them as idolatry seems to us. Here is a common denominator that I have reflected on: It is done because it is considered normal. Normal is by definition what everybody else is doing. We don't even think about the examples I listed above and how peculiar they are compared to virtually the entire history of the human race. Because this is the normal worldview and behavior in the society that we find ourselves in right now. It was the same for Israel. They did not drive out all the inhabitants of the promised land. They lived among or close to other nations and they all had multiple gods that they worshiped, that they relied on for crop yields, weather, offspring, warfare, etc. The Israelites were the weird ones who only had one god. They relied on him alone for all of these things, but whenever they felt that He did not hear them, many of them resorted to other gods. To them, that was the only alternative. If the crops yields were too meager, what else was there to do?

It is easy for us to feel both morally and intellectually superior to ancient Near Eastern people. But we determine morality by our moral codes that are in fact quite different from these ancient societies. But for believers in the one true God it should be the same because the gospel is everlasting, right? Not quite, I would argue. Culture definitely influences our norms and our emphasis on some moral codes or commandments over others. How about intellect? Isn't idol worship kind of stupid? We obviously have the advantage of education, access to information and knowledge that people anciently could not even dream of. But if I were to be born in an ancient Israel society with the same cognitive abilities, I am pretty sure that I would not be any more successful there than I am here. A better approach than becoming arrogant is trying to understand ancient cultures. At least for me, that has been greatly rewarding.

Idol worship in the Book of Mormon

Idolatry is mentioned in the Book of Mormon, but is less prevalent than in the Old Testament. The word, "idol" appears 13 times, but almost half of those are from Isaiah quotes. The word "idolatry" appears 8 times. It is usually just mentioned as a vice among the wicked without giving details or including specific stories involving idol worship. It does make sense that the Nephites are a little less influenced by it than the Israelites. Lehi and Nephi surely did not bring that tradition across the sea. It would rather have come from other people living in the Americas already, of which the Book of Mormon tells us virtually nothing. But I believe that especially the Lamanites mingled with them.

Thus they were a very indolent people, many of whom did worship idols, and the curse of God had fallen upon them because of the traditions of their fathers; notwithstanding the promises of the Lord were extended unto them on the conditions of repentance. (Alma 17:15)

We learn that "many" Lamanites worshiped idols, which implies that not all did, like Israel's neighbors. Also, the general physical separation and distance between Nephites and Lamanites, at least after Mosiah-I's exodus, perhaps contributed to somewhat less influence. Still, some problems with idolatry among the Nephites at times is also evident.

And now behold, he had got great hold upon the hearts of the Nephites; yea, insomuch that they had become exceedingly wicked; yea, the more part of them had turned out of the way of righteousness, and did trample under their feet the commandments of God, and did turn unto their own ways, and did build up unto themselves idols of their gold and their silver. (Helaman 6:31)

Now it came to pass that after the end of Korihor, Alma having received tidings that the Zoramites were perverting the ways of the Lord, and that Zoram, who was their leader, was leading the hearts of the people to bow down to dumb idols, his heart again began to sicken because of the iniquity of the people. (Alma 31:1)

As mentioned, we know little about what exactly the idolatry of the Lamanites and apostate Nephites looked like. For the Nephites, it often seems connected to riches and pride. The concept is generalized by Jacob

30 But wo unto the rich, who are rich as to the things of the world. For because they are rich they despise the poor, and they persecute the meek, and their hearts are upon their treasures; wherefore, their treasure is their god. And behold, their treasure shall perish with them also...

37 Yea, wo unto those that worship idols, for the devil of all devils delighteth in them. (2 Nephi 9)

Conclusion

The modern Western world is vastly different from any previous society in the history of mankind. But apart from the societal influences, which obviously play a very large role, we still may not have changed that much as people. We tend to habitually do whatever is considered normal and find people with a different worldview and behavior weird and perhaps even morally and intellectually inferior. But they just do the same as we do in a sense. For ancient Israelites, the commandment to have no other gods before Yahweh was arguably the hardest one, because it represented a drastic change from the rest of the world they knew. The Nephites also tended to devolve into this in periods of wickedness, but perhaps to a lesser degree, which can possibly be explained by less influence. As human beings then and now, we are very easily influenced by whatever others are doing and we don't like to stand out as different. Sometimes, God commands us to do just that. Those commandments are often the hardest to obey.

"Ripening for destruction" in the story of Moses in Egypt

(This post is a side note that interrupts the conclusion of the endowment pattern series, which will be posted next week.)

When it comes to scripture study, one thing often leads to another.  As I was studying the endowment pattern in the Book of Mormon, I noticed a repetitive warning about the people who occupy the land of promise:

And the fulness of his wrath cometh upon them when they are ripened in iniquity. (Ether 2:9)

Later, as I was studying the story of Moses looking for those same elements, I came across this very interesting verse describing the fiery hail which destroyed the crops and cattle of the Egyptians:

31 And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled.

32 But the wheat and the rie were not smitten: for they were not grown up. (Exodus 9)

Here are a few thoughts about this symbolism:

1. The crops which had ripened were destroyed by the hail, but those that were not yet ripened were spared. This fits the pattern from Ether 2:9 above.  Destruction comes when the people have fully ripened in iniquity.
2. The crops which were destroyed had specific purposes (and idolatrous/worldly symbolic value). Flax was used to make the linen clothing Egyptian priests were required to wear. Barley was used primarily to feed horses and make beer. (See the commentary note for verse 31 here.)  Wheat and rye are more directly useful for sustaining man.
3. The Hebrew root used to describe the state of the barley is 'giḇōl' from a root meaning 'to be convex or cupped in shape.' This is extremely intriguing, as it conjures imagery related to consecration and the Hebrew/Egyptian symbolism of the cupped hand, described in detail in this post. It seems ripening in destruction present a "Two Ways" alternative to the righteous symbol of the cupped hand by shaping the wicked into a vessel prepared to receive the wrath of God rather than His blessing. Thus, accepting the fulness of the word of God leads one to receive powerful blessings from God, whereas rejecting the word of God leads to receiving the fulness of His wrath -- both symbolized in various ways by a cup. 
4. The crops and cattle of the Israelites were spared from this calamity. The Israelites were given the land of Goshen to settle, and Goshen did not experience the hail (see Exodus 9:26).
5. The Egyptians were warned, and some were spared by "fear[ing] the word of the Lord." (See Exodus 9:20-21.)

Conclusion

I'll end this post by listing some verses from the Book of Mormon which mention ripening:

35 ... this people had rejected every word of God, and they were ripe in iniquity; and the fulness of the wrath of God was upon them; and the Lord did curse the land against them, and bless it unto our fathers... (1 Nephi 17)

16 ... For the day shall come that the Lord God will speedily visit the inhabitants of the earth; and in that day that they are fully ripe in iniquity they shall perish. (2 Nephi 28)

37 But behold, the wild branches have grown and have overrun the roots thereof; and because that the wild branches have overcome the roots thereof it hath brought forth much evil fruit; and because that it hath brought forth so much evil fruit thou beholdest that it beginneth to perish; and it will soon become ripened, that it may be cast into the fire, except we should do something for it to preserve it. (Jacob 5, see also verse 58)

19 ... if the time should come that this people should fall into transgression, they would be ripe for destruction. (Alma 10)

28 For behold, there is a curse upon all this land, that destruction shall come upon all those workers of darkness, according to the power of God, when they are fully ripe; therefore I desire that this people might not be destroyed. ...

31 Yea, and cursed be the land forever and ever unto those workers of darkness and secret combinations, even unto destruction, except they repent before they are fully ripe. (Alma 37)

16 And he said: Thus saith the Lord God—Cursed shall be the land, yea, this land, unto every nation, kindred, tongue, and people, unto destruction, which do wickedly, when they are fully ripe; and as I have said so shall it be; for this is the cursing and the blessing of God upon the land, for the Lord cannot look upon sin with the least degree of allowance. (Alma 45)

2 For as their laws and their governments were established by the voice of the people, and they who chose evil were more numerous than they who chose good, therefore they were ripening for destruction, for the laws had become corrupted. (Helaman 5)

39 And thus they did obtain the sole management of the government, insomuch that they did trample under their feet and smite and rend and turn their backs upon the poor and the meek, and the humble followers of God.

40 And thus we see that they were in an awful state, and ripening for an everlasting destruction. (Helaman 6)

25 But behold, ye have rejected the truth, and rebelled against your holy God; and even at this time, instead of laying up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where nothing doth corrupt, and where nothing can come which is unclean, ye are heaping up for yourselves wrath against the day of judgment.

26 Yea, even at this time ye are ripening, because of your murders and your fornication and wickedness, for everlasting destruction; yea, and except ye repent it will come unto you soon. (Helaman 8)

37 And it came to pass in the eighty and fifth year they did wax stronger and stronger in their pride, and in their wickedness; and thus they were ripening again for destruction. (Helaman 11)

14 But behold, it is for the righteous’ sake that it is spared. But behold, the time cometh, saith the Lord, that when ye shall cast out the righteous from among you, then shall ye be ripe for destruction; yea, wo be unto this great city, because of the wickedness and abominations which are in her. (Helaman 13)

Gold and the Two Ways -- part 4a

Gold and the Two Ways in the Book of Mormon

Parts 1, 2, and 3 are found here: Part 1. Part 2. Part 3. We're looking at references to gold and riches and the like in the scriptures in the context of the doctrine of the two ways. In this post, we'll look at some of the references found in the Book of Mormon. This is a big topic, so I will break this into two parts. In this first part, we'll review scriptures from the Book of Mormon just as we've done for the Bible in the first three sections of this series. In the next part we'll take a slight detour and discuss the specific Book of Mormon theme related to treasures becoming slippery during ties of covenant rebellion.

Gold and treasure in the Book of Mormon

The Book of Mormon gives us numerous references to gold (59), treasure (15), and riches (43).  I'm sure there are additional terms with a meaning close enough to add to that tally. Since this is not meant to be a comprehensive review of all references, but just a cursory overview of some of the references which also make reference to the doctrine of the Two Ways, I'll focus on those references which best fit the theme.

For the following list, I'll forego quoting the verses to leave room for more total references in this post:

• 2 Nephi 9:42 -- God despises the prideful and rich unless "they shall cast these things away, and consider themselves fools before God, and come down in the depths of humility."
• Jacob 2:13, 18-19 -- Obtaining riches has led to pride, stiff necks, and high heads. Seek for the kingdom of God before seeking riches. Then seek riches for the intent to do good.
• Mosiah 2:12 -- "I ... have not sought gold nor silver nor and manner of riches of you."
• Mosiah 4:19 -- "Are we not all beggars?" We all depend on God for all the substance we have, including gold, silver, and riches.
• Alma 1:16, 29-30 -- Priestcrafts are associated with a love of the vain things of the world, riches, honor. Meanwhile the righteous cared for the poor and "did not set their hearts upon riches" but were "liberal to all." The "steadiness of the church" brought about exceeding riches.
• Alma 4:6, 8 -- The people wax proud because of their riches, gold, and silver. The church began to be lifted up in the pride of their eyes, and to "set their hearts upon riches" and "they began to be scornful, one towards another."
• Alma 7:6 -- (Alma to the righteous people of Gideon) "I trust that ye are not lifted up in the pride of your hearts; yea, I trust that ye have not set your hearts upon riches and the vain things of the world."
• Alma 15:16 -- Amulek forsook all his riches for the word of God and was rejected by his friends and kindred.
• Alma 39:14 -- "Seek not after riches nor the vain things of this world."
• Alma 45:24 -- Pride because of "exceedingly great riches" leads the people to not give heed to the word or walk uprightly before God.
• Helaman 4:12 -- Pride of the heart and riches lead to "oppression to the poor"
• Helaman 5:7-8 -- Do that which is good, not to boast, but to lay up for yourselves a treasure in heaven (the "precious gift of eternal").
• Helaman 6:17 -- Prosperity leads to setting their hearts upon riches, leading the people to commit secret murders to get gain, rob, and plunder. (Cain is directly mentioned in verse 27.)
• Helaman 7:21, 26: Wo comes to the wicked unless they repent. They seek to "get gain, to be praised of men, yea, and [to] get gold and silver." Pride enters the heart and "has lifted you up beyond that which is good because of your exceedingly great riches!"
• 3 Nephi 6: 10, 12, 15 -- Riches lead to pride and classes, differing chances for learning. Satan had great power, tempting the people "to seek for power, and authority, and riches, and the vain things of the world."
• 3 Nephi 13:19-21 -- Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven.
• 4 Nephi 1:43 -- Riches lead to pride and vanity.

A few thoughts about these verses:

There is a direct connection between riches and having a heart set upon the things of the world. Compare this to the command given to Joseph Smith by Moroni to obtain the plates (which were hidden in the ground) only to further God's work on earth, not for worldly gain. We'll talk about that in the next part in more depth.

Notice the contrasting symbolism between Jacob 2:13 and Alma 45:24 -- riches lead to "stiff necks" and high heads" and also causes the people to refuse to "walk uprightly before God."

Notice also how Amulek is described in Alma 15:16.  It's a perfect analog to the description Jacob gives in 2 Nephi 9:42.

It strikes me how clearly Jesus' words in 3 Nephi 13 fulfill the prophecy of slippery treasure from Helaman 13. This is a foreshadowing of the Nephites brought upon themselves by their covenant rebellion. Their record, also hidden in the ground, has come forth to us in order to gather God's people throughout the earth in the latter days.  Will we be wiser than they and lay up treasure in heaven rather than setting our hearts upon riches?

Scriptural repetition -- An introduction

In this paper, Alan Goff makes a good case for intentional repetition in ancient Hebrew scripture (including the Book of Mormon whose writers have Hebrew heritage). The modern notion among historicist biblical scholars is that many repetitive elements in the Old Testament are clumsy, narrative failures and often evidence of various origins and textual development over time. However, recent pushback against these ideas, including Goff's article, present ancient writers who used repetition deliberately as a literary style, not a defect. The article starts out by giving many examples

Hagar is twice expelled from Abraham’s household (Genesis 16:4–14; 21:9–19), thrice a patriarch endangers his wife in a foreign country by passing her off as his sister (Genesis 12:10–19; 20:1–16; 26:6–11), and multiple times a patriarch or prophet travels to a foreign country to meet a nubile girl at a well to secure a wife (Genesis 24:10–60; 29:1–16; Exodus 2:15–21). Pharaoh slaughters the infants as does Herod the Great (Exodus 1:15– 22; Matthew 2:16–18), and a prophetic figure — whether Moses or Jesus [Page 264]— miraculously provides food in the wilderness (Exodus 16:4–16; Matthew 15:32–38). I could cite many more examples of repeated biblical stories: conflicts as the younger brother supersedes the older (Joseph and his brothers, Genesis 37, 42–45; Esau and Jacob, Genesis 27; Laman and Lemuel against Nephi, 1 Nephi 3:28–31 and elsewhere), threats against out- of-towners appealing for hospitality (Genesis 19; Judges 19); twice Nephites send their attractive young women out to charm marauding Lamanites so the vulnerable group isn’t killed (Mosiah 19:12–15; Mosiah 23:33–34). Such doublets, as they are frequently called, are fundamental to the working of Hebraic narrative: two creation stories, two instances of animals boarding the ark (seven of each kind once and two of each animal the second time), two narratives of water provided in the wilderness during the exodus. To the modern mind these examples are historical problems in the text — duplications, narrative inconsistencies, failures, plagiarisms; biblical critics have in the past few decades rehabilitated these recurrences, noting their sophistication, revealing modern incapacities in scorning them. Sternberg notes of biblical repetitions that “the dismissal of its redundancies in terms of ‘noise’ is the reader’s last resort rather than first resort” and more likely the result of readerly failure than writerly shortcoming.

These ancient writers held a worldview where time ran in cycles and God's dealings with his children followed established recurring patterns. The ancient rabbis highlighted the repeating elements in biblical narrative, noting that “what happens to the fathers, happens to the sons.”

This worldview is clearly held by Nephi

...as well in these times as in times of old, and as well in times of old as in times to come; wherefore, the course of the Lord is one eternal round. (1 Nephi 10:19)

Therefore, we should not be surprised to find recurring events and patterns in the Book of Mormon just as we see in the Old Testament. This is something we have touched upon on this blog before, without necessarily fitting it into the framework that this paper provides. I want to highlight some of the recurring patterns or repetition previously discussed as well as demonstrate some new examples of this. The paper I linked to is quite long, so I will just highlight some of the important paragraphs here for convenience. The paper quotes Robert Alter saying

There are many kinds of ambiguity and contradiction, and abundant varieties of repetition, that are entirely purposeful and that are essential features of the distinctive vehicle of literary experience.

Goff himself notes

The biblical composers and editors used duplicate narrative devices to shape their narratives and provide meaning. Those approaches were built into the text from the beginnings and became a dominant feature of the collection of documents that became the Bible. The textual history is firmly marked by the feature.

He also argues that "to call repetitions “merely” metaphorical is to misunderstand both scripture and metaphor" and goes on to explain the concept of metaphors or types in scripture.

Old Testament priests “who serve unto the example [upodeigmati] and shadow [skia] of heavenly things, as Moses was admonished of God when he was about to make the tabernacle: for, See, saith he, that thou make all things according to the pattern [typon] shewed to thee in the mount.” The Latin figura is the word most commonly used to translate the Greek typos. The secondary pattern matches the original. For the believer in the scripture and its ontology “a scriptural figure, in Christian theology, is not a literary metaphor that brings to the intellect some deeper meaning when attached to another image. A figure is a form that God actually makes historical experience fit, like some providential mold.” This scriptural view of time and history should never be condescended to by the modern reader who sees time in a fundamentally different, linear way. The type establishes a model that later events are going to repeat, which gives us recurrence in time and history; the analogous relationship may or may not be perceived by the reader of any given epoch, but the pattern is nevertheless manifest in the divine creative act. The modern reader needs to grasp and concede the sophistication of this view even if modern temporal notions obstruct adhering to it... Modern condescension toward ancient worldviews is too often framed after only a cursory (if that) examination of antiquity. If that modern condescension of the Bible’s textual assumptions slips over to the Book of Mormon, one can hardly be surprised if either book is read in a superficial way.

He also explains the concept of metalepsis

a mere reference to another text that reverberates with much stronger connection to the earlier text’s context by referring to only one small part but obliquely invoking the entire previous story...just by using a key word or citing a phrase, the later writer can evoke the larger context and storyline of the earlier text.

Learning about this, many Book of Mormon examples of metalepsis immediately comes to mind. This can come in many forms

The analogous element can be embedded in plot, character, word sound, word meaning, or theme. The repetitive component just needs to remind the reader of the earlier type.

There are many examples given in the paper. In addition to the ones given in the opening quote, the paper brings up several other examples that are discussed at various length.

Jonah and Exodus

In Jonah 4:2 we read

for I knew that thou art a gracious God, and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness

This is likely an allusion to Exodus 34:6-7

6 And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed, The Lord, The Lord God, merciful and gracious, longsuffering, and abundant in goodness and truth,
7 Keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin

This is more obvious in the original Hebrew where e.g. "slow to anger" in Jonah and "longsuffering" in Exodus are the same word. This example is part of a discussion in the paper about the nature of relationships between two texts. In general, it is much easier to show that a relationship exists than to prove which one came first, especially in the Old Testament when sometimes little is known about original authorship. But some cases are easier than others. This example has all the specificity on the side of Exodus being the predecessor text. According to Goff

By citing just one detail from God’s previous mercy, grace, and longsuffering in the foundational event of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt and receipt of the law of Moses, the Jonah passage evokes God’s previous works of salvation for Israel, extending mercy for thousands and forgiving Israel’s sins. God granted Israel mercy, grace, and longsuffering by sending Moses down the mountain with the tablets of the law after 40 days to find the children of Israel engaging in idolatry at the base of the mountain. The irony is that God is willing to extend the same mercy, grace, and longsuffering to the people of Nineveh that Jonah wants reserved only for Israel with the Israelite ancestors knowingly idolatrous while the Ninevites don’t know their moral right hands from their left (Jonah 4:11). The reader needs to know the larger story of granting the law of Moses to see what the book of Jonah is doing in the allusion, whereas one doesn’t have to know the book of Jonah to get the message from Exodus 34.

Alma's and Lehi's visions

In Alma 36:22, Alma sees a vision very similar to Lehi's vision. He explicitly refers to it and the verse contains a verbatim quote of 1 Nephi 1:8. Goff uses this example to challenge Brent Metcalfe's assertion that Joseph Smith is the author of the Book of Mormon and that the order of composition (Mosiah-Moroni -> 1 Nephi-WoM) points to the "real" author. This Alma-Lehi example is but one example to challenge that idea. It establishes the original and the reference even more clearly than the previous Jonah-Exodus example. Alma refers to Lehi by name, Lehi never mentions Alma. If Lehi's writings came first, Joseph Smith was not the author (unless you can make a good case for Joseph Smith hiding a manuscript in his hat and secretly reading from it, which you can't).

Helaman 6

There are some verses in these chapters that exemplify metaleptic allusion to evoke the larger context and storyline of earlier texts. 

25 Now behold, it is these secret oaths and covenants which Alma commanded his son should not go forth unto the world, lest they should be a means of bringing down the people unto destruction.

26 Now behold, those secret oaths and covenants did not come forth unto Gadianton from the records which were delivered unto Helaman; but behold, they were put into the heart of Gadianton by that same being who did entice our first parents to partake of the forbidden fruit—

27 Yea, that same being who did plot with Cain, that if he would murder his brother Abel it should not be known unto the world. And he did plot with Cain and his followers from that time forth.

28 And also it is that same being who put it into the hearts of the people to build a tower sufficiently high that they might get to heaven. And it was that same being who led on the people who came from that tower into this land; who spread the works of darkness and abominations over all the face of the land, until he dragged the people down to an entire destruction, and to an everlasting hell.

Helaman 6:25 refers to Alma 37 which in turn refers to Jaredite secret oaths in the Book of Ether. Verses 26-27 refer to Adam, Eve, Cain and Abel in the early chapters of Genesis and verse 28 refers to the Tower of Babel and the Jaredite exodus. It is clear from all these examples that they refer to past events. Again, this challenges the idea that Joseph Smith is the author because at this point in the dictation, the Book of Ether did not yet exist. Turning the logical order around and considering Ether a reference to an original text in Helaman 6 is like saying that the Garden of Eden story in Genesis is referring to Helaman.

Isaiah 40:3-4

This is a well-known verse

The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low: and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places plain

Goff uses this example to demonstrate that "the very notion of repetitions runs against the historicist assertion that a text means only what the original author intended. Repetitions by nature imply the existence of multiple meanings and symphonic reverberations within a single text, even when read in different historical contexts.

The historical setting for Isaiah 40 is clearly the preparation for a latter-day gathering of Israel. In 1 Nephi 10:3, Lehi talks about this context without referring to Isaiah 40 or its language. But only a few verses later, he ties this into a message about the coming of the Messiah and uses the Isaiah language.

even six hundred years from the time that my father left Jerusalem, a prophet would the Lord God raise up among the Jews — even a Messiah, or, in other words, a Savior of the world … And he spake also concerning a prophet who should come before the Messiah, to prepare the way of the Lord — Yea, even he should go forth and cry in the wilderness: Prepare ye the way of the Lord, and make his paths straight; for there standeth one among you whom ye know not; and he is mightier than I, whose shoe’s latchet I am not worthy to unloose. And much spake my father concerning this thing (1 Nephi 10:5,7-8)

We see something similar done in Matthew 3:3. In fact, many New Testament quotations of the Old Testament represent what modern historicist bible scholars would consider misinterpretations. But Nephi goes out of his way to recommend Isaiah more generally (2 Nephi 25:1-6). In Alma we see further examples of this passage applied differently. This language is used both in an uplifting message to the righteous people in Gideon in Alma 7 and the wicked people in Ammonihah in Alma 9.

But behold, the Spirit hath said this much unto me, saying: Cry unto this people, saying—Repent ye, and prepare the way of the Lord, and walk in his paths, which are straight; for behold, the kingdom of heaven is at hand, and the Son of God cometh upon the face of the earth. (Alma 7:9)

Therefore, prepare ye the way of the Lord, for the time is at hand that all men shall reap a reward of their works, according to that which they have been—if they have been righteous they shall reap the salvation of their souls, according to the power and deliverance of Jesus Christ; and if they have been evil they shall reap the damnation of their souls, according to the power and captivation of the devil. (Alma 9:28) 

A conclusive note

There are even more examples brought up and discussed in Goff's paper but I will let this suffice for now. I want to spend future posts on identifying other examples from the Book of Mormon. There are plenty of them. Before going into that, I will share some general thoughts. 

One observation is the uniqueness of this scriptural feature. Perhaps others would disagree, but when reading novels or other literature, you would normally encounter events along a timeline without much repetition. Initial events establishing a blueprint for later events to follow is just not something we expect to find in literature other than the scriptures. 

Another point I would make relates to the good old debate about Book of Mormon origin. When we see similar patterns and literary devices in the Old Testament and in the Book of Mormon, I see that as yet another affirmation that the authors held similar worldviews and followed similar scribal traditions. If Joseph Smith authored the Book of Mormon as some people claim, similar patterns in the Old Testament and the Book of Mormon require entirely different explanations. I don't want to be accused of creating a straw-man argument, so I concede that the most likely explanations by critics would be that Joseph Smith simply mimicked features of the Bible that he was familiar with. Still, I think that identifying and mimicking ancient literary styles is a lot to expect from a young farmhand.

When viewed as intentional characteristics of the word of God, scriptural repetitions become gateways to additional learning and insight. In his book "Beholding the tree of life", Bradley J. Kramer suggests that we have something to learn from the rabbis who arguably spend more time with their text than the average Latter-Day Saint Book of Mormon reader. They pay particular attention when there is repetition and seeming redundancies. They believe that the learning lies in the differences between similar texts as well as in the similarities between different texts. That is, repetitions are rarely verbatim and if they are, the contexts are not identical. Once the allusion has been established, the learning points lies in the differences between the reference and the referred text.

I will spend the next posts presenting further examples from the Book of Mormon.

Cain, קַיִן, and "getting gain"

As has been demonstrated many times in various ways, the writers of the Book of Mormon understood Hebrew. This post gives an overview of many examples.  Today we'll discuss an additional example, which also lends credibility to the idea that the Book of Mormon writers had access to some form of the Book of Moses., perhaps on the brass plates.

I'll be summarizing many ideas presented by Matthew Bowen in this 2017 FairMormon presentation.

Bowen points out that unlike in English, ancient Hebrew names are important signals of meaning:

Names, as signals or signs, communicated much more in terms of meaning anciently than they often do today. As Michael P. O’Connor has noted, “Semitic names are often linguistically transparent, i.e., meaningful as ordinary words (or compounds of them) in the language of their hearers.” In other words, names in the ancient Israelite onomasticon most often meant something to ancient Israelites in the Hebrew language or in languages of neighboring cultures with which at least some members of their society (e.g., scribes) were familiar (e.g., Egyptian, cf. Egyptian names Phinehas, Hophni, Pashhur, Miriam/Mary, etc.). With the exception of a few linguistically transparent personal names like Rose, Lily (and other “flower names”), Sunny, Hope, and so forth, English names overwhelmingly tend to be linguistically opaque.

This is an important backdrop, because it suggests that if we can find relevance in the meaning of a name in the Hebrew Bible, that meaning is way more likely to be intentional than in a modern text.

The meaning of Cain

The Hebrew name for Cain is 

קַיִן - Qayin (source)

This name is related to the Hebrew root 'qanah' (קָנָה) which means 'to get, acquire.' The wordplay is transparent in the first mention of Cain in Genesis 4:1 --

1 And Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived, and bare Cain, and said, I have gotten a man from the Lord. (Genesis 4)

Cain's Fate

In Moses 5:24 we learn that God warns Cain that if he rebels against the covenant, his name "shalt be called Perdition." This is significant because 'perdition' is an antonym of 'qayin' meaning "eternal damnation, utter destruction, loss" (source).

Sadly, Cain rejects this warning and slays his brother.

It is very interesting to me that the Book of Moses intensifies the nature of the wordplay on the name of Cain. Think of the elements found in Moses 5 regarding secret combinations in verses 29-41, which specifically highlights the purpose of these combinations, which is to murder and get gain. This is certainly not a coincidence but rather a restoration of something very ancient which was literally built into the name given to Cain. After making this oath with Satan, Cain's new name for himself is "Master Mahan" which might derive from the Hebrew word for "destroyer" (see page 148 of this paper).

Connections to "the two churches" concept

Nephi plainly teaches there are two churches. (See this post for a longer discussion.) One, the church of the Lamb of God, invites all to "come unto [Christ] and ... eat and drink of the bread and the waters of life freely." (See Alma 5:34.) This activity ultimately leads to "works of righteousness" (discussed in more depth here and here) and eternal life. Some of these righteous works are sacred and only given to those who have fully committed to following Christ all their days (partly as a protection against the curses associated with breaking the covenant). The ultimate reward of belonging to this church is to be "gathered in" (see 3 Nephi 21:24, 28) and receive eternal life.

The church of the devil, on the other hand, seeks to produce "workers of iniquity" who are "puffed up in the vain things of the world" and who "have professed to have known the ways of righteousness nevertheless have gone astray." (See Alma 5:37.) Some of their more advanced activity also involves secret agreements which involve "murdering to get gain" but leads to being cutting off, cast out, and experiencing spiritual death -- permanent separation from God. Alma-2 puts it this way in his masterful sermon in Zarahemla:

42 And whosoever doeth this must receive his wages of him; therefore, for his wages he receiveth death, as to things pertaining unto righteousness, being dead unto all good works.

What does the Book of Mormon say about Cain?

Matthew Bowen points out that both times Cain is mentioned in the Book of Mormon, his name is used in close proximity to references to secret combinations for the purposes of getting gain:

Helaman 6

Mormon gives us an in-depth overview of the origin and purposes of secret combinations in this chapter, as he is explaining that the Nephites "began to set their hearts upon their riches" and "began to seek to get gain that they might be lifted up one above another" (see Helaman 6:17).  This begins a long passage about secret combinations, where we learn:

• "those murderers and plunderers were a band who had been formed by Kishkumen and Gadianton" (v. 18)
• the purpose was to allow them to commit crimes without having to suffer for them (v. 21-23)
• Satan is the author of them (v. 26)
• Satan plotted with Cain in a similar manner (v. 27)

We also learn from verses 21-22 that these secret combinations involved:

• covenants
• oaths to protect and preserve each other
• secret signs
• secret words

Ether 8

Moroni gives us a glimpse into the secret combinations which were had among the Jaredites, in which many of the same principles are outlined, including that these oaths "were given by them of old who also sought power, which had been handed down even from Cain, who was a murderer from the beginning." (See Ether 8:15.)

We also learn that these oaths "have caused the destruction of this people of whom I am now speaking, and also the destruction of the people of Nephi." (See verse 21.)

The purpose of these oaths is to "get power and gain." (See verses 16, 22, and 23.) 

Summary

In conclusion, we learn a few important truths from this layer of meaning embedded in the name of Cain. 

1. First, we learn that names are meaningful in Hebrew.  
2. Second, we learn that Cain's association with Satan for the purpose of getting gain is an abomination and we should seek to identify it and eliminate its influence from our lives (See especially Ether 8:23-25.) 
3. Third, we learn that the writers of the Book of Mormon seem to have understood the deeper Hebrew meanings of names. 
4. Finally, we learn that the writers of the Book of Mormon seem to have had access to material that is similar to what we have in the Book of Moses.