The breastplate and the Urim and Thummim

I just read Exodus 28:30

And thou shalt put in the breastplate of judgment the Urim and the Thummim; and they shall be upon Aaron’s heart, when he goeth in before the Lord: and Aaron shall bear the judgment of the children of Israel upon his heart before the Lord continually.

Aaron and his sons, the priests of the tabernacle, wore a breastplate in which they put the Urim and Thummim. Some scholars believe that there was some sort of pouch on the breastplate that could fit the two stones. We know that Joseph Smith also had a breastplate and a Urim and Thummim. According to his younger brother, William, the breastplate had a

pocket [that] was prepared in the [Nephite] breastplate on the left side, immediately over the heart. When not in use the [interpreters were] placed in this pocket, the rod being of just the right length to allow it to be so deposited.

Admittedly this is a late account. But if William remembers correctly, the similarities to Exodus and the way Aaron and his sons anciently used the breastplate and Urim and Thummim, are striking. More information on this topic is given in this article. What the article does not mention, is that Joseph Smith did not seem to know about the Urim and Thummim at the time when he translated the Book of Mormon. Otherwise, critics could claim that Joseph simply read Exodus 28:30 and imitated that as he fabricated a story (except the witnesses actually saw the breastplate and interpreters too). But Joseph Smith never once mentioned the Urim and Thummim before, during or shortly after the Book of Mormon translation. They are not mentioned in the Book of Mormon either. Joseph consistently referred to the stones as "the Nephite interpreters". In the Book of Mormon itself, they are described as "interpreters" (Mosiah 8:13), "two stones which were fastened into the two rims of a bow" (Mosiah 28:13) or simply "two stones" (Ether 3:23).

Not until 1833, the name Urim and Thummim starts being used. Someone, and it does not even seem to be Joseph Smith, made the connection between the Nephite interpreters and the ancient Urim and Thummim mentioned in the Bible. The earliest account that we have where this name is being used and this connection is being made is found in the January edition of the Evening and Morning Star

It was translated by the gift and power of God, by an unlearned man, through the aid of a pair of Interpreters, or spectacles-(known, perhaps, in ancient days as Teraphim, or Urim and Thummim)

This was written by W. W. Phelps. The "perhaps" seems to indicate personal speculation rather than information from Joseph Smith. But this seemed to gain traction since numerous accounts after this use "Urim and Thummim" as names for both the Nephite Interpreters and Joseph Smith's seer stone. I don't know how critics would explain the fact that the Nephite Interpreters seem to be carrying on an ancient Israelite tradition and knowledge of the Urim and Thummim. Joseph just copying the Bible does not hold up to scrutiny, unless we believe that he purposely did not say anything and hoped that someone else like W.W.Phelps would make the connection later on. Seems far fetched to me.

God as creator and subtle Book of Mormon evidence

Why do I enjoy learning about and finding evidence for the authenticity of the Book of Mormon? I am honestly not sure. My testimony is not based on it, but having an academic interest, I suppose I just like to see the book stand its ground when being attacked by disbelievers. Sometimes, the more subtle evidence is the strongest, just because you would not expect the young farmhand to be thinking of all those details that require special in-depth knowledge.

One thing I just learned that might fall in the subtle evidence category, has to do with the ancient Hebrew word for 'create'. The word is bara (בָּרָא). Translating it into 'create' in English is fine, except for one detail: In Hebrew, only God can create. Humans can 'make' (asah) and 'form' (yatsar) but never 'create' (bara). This is not the case in English, where people can create art, confusion, a business, a good atmosphere, etc. But in Hebrew, creation is reserved for God only.

So what does that have to do with the Book of Mormon? It was not written in Hebrew anyway and we only have an English translation of the original text. Well, my studies have led me to believe that the Nephites had brought and preserved a lot of the Hebrew culture, thinking and even language (see this and this post). For this reason, I thought it might be interesting to see how the Book of Mormon uses the word, 'create'. This is what I found:

• The word create/created/creating is used 42 times in the Book of Mormon.
• Every single time this verb is used, God is the subject. Just like 'bara' in the Hebrew Bible, only God creates in the English Book of Mormon.
• In the Book of Mormon, people make and form. Nephi makes a record (1 Nephi 1:1), wicked people make a great uproar (3 Nephi 1:7), Jaredites form a secret combination (Ether 8:18) and Nephites form laws (3 Nephi 6:4), but they never create anything

Perhaps this was just Joseph Smith's vocabulary and way of speaking? Definitely not! In the Joseph Smith History in the Pearl of Great Price (which is very short compared to the entire Book of Mormon), people create something three times. First a great stir in JSH 1:5, persecution in JSH 1:22 and "a spirit of the most bitter persecution and reviling" in verse 23.

I will obviously not include all 42 examples of creation in the Book of Mormon in this post, but just a small sample showing that the Book of Mormon makes it absolutely clear who is creating.

For it is I that taketh upon me the sins of the world; for it is I that hath created them; and it is I that granteth unto him that believeth unto the end a place at my right hand. (Mosiah 26:23)

But behold, I will show unto you a God of miracles, even the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob; and it is that same God who created the heavens and the earth, and all things that in them are. (Mormon 9:11)

Behold, I am Jesus Christ the Son of God. I created the heavens and the earth, and all things that in them are. (3 Nephi 9:15)

A note on Hebrew in the Book of Mormon

One of our readers asked why we look for Hebrew roots in the Book of Mormon. After all it was written in Reformed Egyptian. In case others wonder and because we are basing many of our blog posts these days on Hebrew roots, I wanted to make a note about that. 

We don't know exactly what Reformed Egyptian is. But most scholars agree that it is a variant of the Hebrew language expressed with Egyptian script. This article explains more.

Critics of the church make fun of Reformed Egyptian and claim that no such thing exists. But it's important to understand that this is just a label the Nephites used and a perfectly fine label for what is described in the linked article above. It is also important to understand the difference between spoken languages and a writing system. Some examples to illustrate this point:

• If I write "hallelujah", I can say that is a Hebrew word. But a Jew would not write it like that. I have expressed a Hebrew word with Latin script. In Hebrew, it would be הללויה, and impossible for me to read.
• English is a language but not a writing system. The writing system is actually Latin. You can use it to express English words, but you can also use it to express German, Italian, Spanish, even Vietnamese words, because they also use the Latin writing system.
• Yiddish is a dialect of German written with the Hebrew alphabet. 
• Japanese is written in a modified form of Chinese characters. Kanji literally means "Chinese characters."
• The Korean writing system "Hangul" was invented by Sejong the Great in 1443 to promote literacy. It suddenly replaced the Chinese writing system practically overnight, even though the spoken language didn't change at all.

As Mormon 9:32 states, it is the characters (writing system) that they call Reformed Egyptian. That makes sense since the language spoken by Lehi and Nephi in Jerusalem 600 BC was obviously Hebrew. So why did they not use the Hebrew writing system too? I think the answer is found in Mormon 9:33

And if our plates had been sufficiently large we should have written in Hebrew

Both Hebrew and Egyptian writing contain consonants only. But unlike Hebrew, Hieratic script (the ancient Egyptian writing system in use 600 BC) could also combine more than one consonant into one character. Therefore, it represented a more compact writing system. In addition, "reformed" may indicate other means to further contract the writing system. Considering Jacob 4:1 and other verses expressing the same sentiment, it is no wonder that this would be an objective for the Nephites.

...and I cannot write but a little of my words, because of the difficulty of engraving our words upon plates...

Another reason for using a form of Egyptian script might be the fact that the record they obtained from Laban and brought along to "preserve...the language" (1 Nephi 3:19) was also written in Egyptian. This is stated in Mosiah 1:4

For it were not possible that our father, Lehi, could have remembered all these things, to have taught them to his children, except it were for the help of these plates; for he having been taught in the language of the Egyptians therefore he could read these engravings, and teach them to his children, that thereby they could teach them to their children, and so fulfilling the commandments of God, even down to this present time.

Another reason why it is clear to me that primarily the characters were based on Egyptian and the language was based on Hebrew, is the numerous Hebrew meanings and wordplays we find in the Book of Mormon. When names are transliterated, their Hebrew origin usually shines through, even though they may be of Egyptian origin in some cases since the Israelites in 600 BC were also influenced by other cultures and languages. When you translate Hebrew-like words written in Egyptian script into English, the script totally changes and the Egyptian part is lost. 

Based on all that, we (the main bloggers, Lord Wilmore and me) think it can be meaningful to understand the underlying Hebrew origin of certain words or phrases in the Book of Mormon. It is a rich language full of connections and symbolism that can enhance our understanding of various principles. Since we only have the translated English word, this will inevitably be somewhat speculative. In addition, we know that

the Hebrew hath been altered by us also (Mormon 9:33)

How much, we don't know. Personally, I think that the Nephite spoken language must have developed quite a bit over time. 1000 years is a long time. See for instance how much English has changed over 1000 years. However, I cannot imagine the written language on the plates having changed too much. Mormon compiled the writings from the time of Nephi all the way down to his own time. Abbreviating from many different sources with completely different languages would be a really difficult task. Rather, the Nephite scribes were taught in the language of their fathers (see e.g. Mosiah 1:2).

Based on all the Hebraism we find in the Book of Mormon, including many elements from the Hebrew language identified and written about on this blog, I think the "learning of the Jews" (1 Nephi 1:2) has been preserved among the Nephite scribes. I don't know much Hebrew myself, but my impression is that those who do, and who know the Book of Mormon, tend to see Jewish/Hebrew fingerprints all over the book.

I think Reformed Egyptian is evidence of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon. Otherwise we would need to expect a young farmer with little education to understand the concept of different languages and writing systems, specifically know the characteristics of the Hebrew and Egyptian writing systems, ensure internal consistency between e.g. 1 Nephi 1, Mosiah 1 and Mormon 9, learn and use  transliterations of numerous Hebrew and some Egyptian names in the Book of Mormon, etc. That just does not seem plausible at all. In fact, when modern critics mock Reformed Egyptian and claim it is an invention by Joseph Smith, they reveal their lack of understanding of something that the young farmer in the early 1800s apparently understood better than them.

Underlying Hebrew gender of Book of Mormon nouns

In the English language, nouns traditionally have no gender. I guess words like actor/actress, waiter/waitress clearly indicate a gender, but the point is that in many other languages, the article preceding any noun indicates what gender it is. This is not the case in English. In my native language, for example, there are 3 genders: Masculine, feminine and neuter. In Hebrew, there are two, masculine and feminine. Every noun will have a gender. When translated into English, this characteristic is typically lost. But there are some cases in the Book of Mormon, where a gender pronouns refers back to the noun, especially when it is feminine, it seems. (This may also be due to the fact that the feminine nouns are easier to find with searches. I found some searching for "she/her" but couldn't do the same with "he/him/his" because there are way too many results). 

So there may be more, but I have found at least the following:

Wisdom

In Mosiah 8:20, we read:

how blind and impenetrable are the understandings of the children of men; for they will not seek wisdom, neither do they desire that she should rule over them!

Since nouns have no gender in English, there is no reason why wisdom should be referred to as something feminine. Unless you consider the original Book of Mormon language, based on Hebrew, where wisdom is a feminine noun. In fact, wisdom is associated with the devine feminine, and the way it is even personified in this verse is a strong allusion to that concept.

City

There are two different words for "city" in Hebrew, qiryah and qereth. They are both feminine. 

In Helaman 13:14, we read

wo be unto this great city, because of the wickedness and abominations which are in her.

Similarly, in Mormon 4:14

And they did also march forward against the city Teancum, and did drive the inhabitants forth out of her

So apparently, cities are regarded as feminine nouns in the Book of Mormon too. 

Vessel/ship

Having little to no knowledge of the Hebrew language, I'm relying on Strong's Hebrew at biblehub.com. This one was a bit tricky but the most common word for "ship" in the Hebrew Old Testament (31 occurrences) is oniyyah, which is a feminine noun. There was another masculine noun, tsiy, but it had only 4 occurrences. In the Book of Mormon, ship is feminine:

And it came to pass that one other ship also did sail forth; and whither she did go we know not. (Alma 63:8)

There is another case in Mormon 5:18, when the word, "vessel", is used, but clearly in the meaning of a ship.

as a vessel is tossed about upon the waves, without sail or anchor, or without anything wherewith to steer her; and even as she is, so are they.

The only Hebrew word I found that is translated into "vessel" but defined as "ship" is sephinah. This is also a feminine noun in Hebrew. However, there is only one occurrence of this word (Book of Jonah).

Earth

In Helaman 11:13, we read

O Lord, wilt thou hearken unto me, and cause that it may be done according to my words, and send forth rain upon the face of the earth, that she may bring forth her fruit, and her grain in the season of grain.

Again, there are several possible candidates for the word, "earth", in Hebrew. I think the best candidate by far is erets, another feminine noun. Other candidates are Aramaic or have very few occurrences but most of these are also feminine. "Aphar" is masculine and can be translated into "earth" but in the sense of "soil/ground", which does not fit the context in Helaman.

Justice

Some of the readers may have had the thought by now: Even though nouns have no genders in the English language, isn't it common to view ships and earth like something feminine? Yes, that is true. "Mother earth" is still a common expression today. The reason why ship and earth are regarded as something feminine in English, is actually the genders they have in other languages like greek and latin, where many of these words come from. For some reason, these "old" genders have stuck to some of the words in the English language. So I admit, at least these two are not the first arguments I would use as evidence of the Hebrew roots of the Book of Mormon. 

Justice, however, does not have a traditionally assigned gender. But if anything, it would probably be viewed as feminine. "Justice" comes from the latin, "iustitia". It is a feminine noun and the origin of the Lady Justice.

But in the Book of Mormon, justice is masculine

For behold, justice exerciseth all his demands (Alma 42:24)

So it is in Hebrew. There are several candidates, like din, tsedeq and meshar but they are all masculine.

Mercy

In the very same verse I quoted about justice, we also find a gender reference to mercy.

and also mercy claimeth all which is her own (Alma 42:24)

I learned a lot by studying the possible Hebrew root of this passage. John W. Welch notes here that

The words mercy and justice in Hebrew have gender. Wisdom and mercy are represented by female concepts, whereas justice is often male.

The underlying Hebrew origin (even though Alma surely didn't speak the same kind of Hebrew that we find in the Old Testament) is likely racham, even though no Hebrew word directly translates to mercy. Racham is better translated into compassion, in which case it actually is a masculine noun. But it also means womb and is then a feminine noun connected to women and often childbirth. The two meanings might seem very unrelated, but the Hebrew idea is that this compassion comes from deep within and is perhaps best illustrated by the feelings of a mother for her child. This actually adds some meaning to "bowels of mercy" that we find several places in the Book of Mormon. It seems likely that this expression originates from the Hebrew "racham". In Alma 34:15, we read

to bring about the bowels of mercy, which overpowereth justice

This is Alma 42 language and the reason why I believe "mercy" in this chapter is somehow related to the Hebrew "racham".

In Hosea 1:6, Hosea's daughter was to be named Lo-Ruchamah, meaning no mercy/compassion. Later in Hosea, the name is changed to "ruchama" as the Lord symbolically turns his anger to mercy. Ruchama is still today a Jewish female name. So even though it technically can be a masculine noun, it is very much a feminine concept in ancient Hebrew.

This is just one of numerous examples of small details in the Book of Mormon that provide evidence of its ancient origins. If Joseph Smith had made it up, we could perhaps explain away one or two of these as lucky guesses and get away with it, but there are 6 nouns in this list. To compare with my native language, earth is feminine, ship is neutral and city is masculine. The rest are words that usually would not be preceded by an article and therefore a bit undefined in terms of gender, but if you were to use an article, they would all be masculine. This is quite different from the noun genders we see in the Book of Mormon that match better with Hebrew than Greek, Latin or other more modern languages assigning gender to nouns.

 

Excellent example of the poetic Hebrew embedded in the Book of Mormon

This paper from Loren Spendlove, published at the Interpreter, outlines several different ways Ammon uses Hebrew wordplay to refute his brother Aaron's accusation of boasting in himself at the success the brothers had in their missionary labors among the Lamanites.

The whole paper is well worth your time, as it unfolds the rhetorical reasons why Ammon seems to repeat himself so many times on the topic of "boast/praise/glory" (הָלַל- "h-l-l") and "joy/rejoicing" (שָׂמַח - "s-m-ch").

Intentional repetition is at the heart of ancient Hebrew rhetoric, even though it doesn't play as big a role in our modern day thinking. If this topic interests you, see this post, this post, and this post for additional examples.

In Alma 26, Spendlove expertly points out a distinct pattern that makes sense in the context of ancient Hebrew, but is barely noticeable in English. This is because words derived from the same root in Hebrew can have several different meanings in English. The common root is easily identified in the Hebrew, but not necessarily in English.

To illustrate this point, I'll post the relevant passages below with words derived from the root "h-l-l" in green and the words derived from "s-m-ch" in blue. I'll be following the tables from the paper as I do this.

First Aaron's rebuke:

10 And it came to pass that when Ammon had said these words, his brother Aaron rebuked him, saying: Ammon, I fear that thy joy doth carry thee away unto boasting. (Alma 26)

Then the first part of Ammon's response:

11 But Ammon said unto him: I do not boast in my own strength, nor in my own wisdom; but behold, my joy is full, yea, my heart is brim with joy, and I will rejoice in my God.
12 Yea, I know that I am nothing; as to my strength I am weak; therefore I will not boast of myself, but I will boast of my God, for in his strength I can do all things; yea, behold, many mighty miracles we have wrought in this land, for which we will praise his name forever.
13 Behold, how many thousands of our brethren has he loosed from the pains of hell; and they are brought to sing redeeming love, and this because of the power of his word which is in us, therefore have we not great reason to rejoice?
14 Yea, we have reason to praise him forever, for he is the Most High God, and has loosed our brethren from the chains of hell.
15 Yea, they were encircled about with everlasting darkness and destruction; but behold, he has brought them into his everlasting light, yea, into everlasting salvation; and they are encircled about with the matchless bounty of his love; yea, and we have been instruments in his hands of doing this great and marvelous work.
16 Therefore, let us glory, yea, we will glory in the Lord; yea, we will rejoice, for our joy is full; yea, we will praise our God forever. Behold, who can glory too much in the Lord? Yea, who can say too much of his great power, and of his mercy, and of his long-suffering towards the children of men? Behold, I say unto you, I cannot say the smallest part which I feel. (Alma 26)

Finally, here is the end of Ammon's response:

35 Now have we not reason to rejoice? Yea, I say unto you, there never were men that had so great reason to rejoice as we, since the world began; yea, and my joy is carried away, even unto boasting in my God; for he has all power, all wisdom, and all understanding; he comprehendeth all things, and he is a merciful Being, even unto salvation, to those who will repent and believe on his name.
36 Now if this is boasting, even so will I boast; for this is my life and my light, my joy and my salvation, and my redemption from everlasting wo. Yea, blessed is the name of my God, who has been mindful of this people, who are a branch of the tree of Israel, and has been lost from its body in a strange land; yea, I say, blessed be the name of my God, who has been mindful of us, wanderers in a strange land.
37 Now my brethren, we see that God is mindful of every people, whatsoever land they may be in; yea, he numbereth his people, and his bowels of mercy are over all the earth. Now this is my joy, and my great thanksgiving; yea, and I will give thanks unto my God forever. Amen. (Alma 26)

It is interesting to note that outside of these two sections, the only time any word derived from either root is used in the word "joy" in verse 30. Essentially, Ammon takes two words from Aaron's rebuke and builds an entire repetitive structure out of those two words demonstrating all the reasons he has to boast in God and rejoice in their success. The the first part of his response (verses 11-16) is quite similar to the end (verses 35-37). The middle section (verses 17-34) gives us the details.

This is another example of a passage of scripture in the Book of Mormon that makes far more sense in the context of ancient Hebrew rhetoric than relatively modern English. For me, this example needs to be added to a long and growing list of items one would need to plausibly refute in order to convince me that Joseph Smith (or any other 19th century figure) authored this book.

Internal consistency of Alma and Amulek in Ammonihah (and a general note on previews in the Book of Mormon)

Here is an example of internal consistency. Alma 8:31 talks about Alma and Amulek

And they had power given unto them, insomuch that they could not be confined in dungeons; neither was it possible that any man could slay them; nevertheless they did not exercise their power until they were bound in bands and cast into prison. Now, this was done that the Lord might show forth his power in them.

This has not happened yet but Mormon gets ahead of himself. The next 6 chapters are dealing with Alma and Amulek in Ammonihah. It is not until the end of this story in Alma 14 that we see these things happening

10 And when Amulek saw the pains of the women and children who were consuming in the fire, he also was pained; and he said unto Alma: How can we witness this awful scene? Therefore let us stretch forth our hands, and exercise the power of God which is in us, and save them from the flames.

11 But Alma said unto him: The Spirit constraineth me that I must not stretch forth mine hand; ...

17 And it came to pass that Alma and Amulek answered him nothing; and he smote them again, and delivered them to the officers to be cast into prison...

25 And it came to pass that they all went forth and smote them, saying the same words, even until the last; and when the last had spoken unto them the power of God was upon Alma and Amulek, and they rose and stood upon their feet.

26 And Alma cried, saying: How long shall we suffer these great afflictions, O Lord? O Lord, give us strength according to our faith which is in Christ, even unto deliverance. And they broke the cords with which they were bound; and when the people saw this, they began to flee, for the fear of destruction had come upon them.

27 And it came to pass that so great was their fear that they fell to the earth, and did not obtain the outer door of the prison; and the earth shook mightily, and the walls of the prison were rent in twain, so that they fell to the earth; and the chief judge, and the lawyers, and priests, and teachers, who smote upon Alma and Amulek, were slain by the fall thereof.

28 And Alma and Amulek came forth out of the prison, and they were not hurt; for the Lord had granted unto them power, according to their faith which was in Christ.

This is not the first time that the Book of Mormon gives a preview of something happening later. In fact, there are many such examples, several of them posted on this blog

• Mormon's preview in 3 Nephi 26 of what happens in 3 Nephi 27-28 and 4 Nephi
• Mormon's description of the 3 Nephites in 3 Nephi 28 before the events occur in 4 Nephi
• Mosiah 7 mentions several details about the people of Limhi before the Book of Mormon jumps back in time to relate the events. There are many examples and some are mentioned here. It clearly demonstrates that the author of Mosiah 7 knew what would happen in Mosiah 9-21
• Prophecies in the Book of Mormon work the same way because their fulfillment are often described in detail
• Colophons in the Book of Mormon have not been mentioned on this blog, I think, but are yet another example
• Mormon's editorial promises
• Etc.

There are many posts about internal consistency on this blog. Often they show examples of the Book of Mormon referring to something that happened earlier, meaning the author had to remember/know what had been written before. But these examples above demonstrate that the story also was known before it was told, even at a very detailed level sometimes. Believing that the Book of Mormon is what Joseph Smith claimed it to be, this is all very natural to me. But it is tempting to ask those who think Joseph Smith made it up, why they think he made it so difficult for himself. There is pretty strong evidence that he didn't have use any notes as he dictated the text. Giving these previews he would always run the risk of contradicting himself later because he would have to remember giving the preview and then relate the story in a manner consistent with that preview. The message of the Book of Mormon would not be impeded by a lack of such previews. In fact, some of them are so subtle that they largely go unnoticed. This one I just shared in Alma 8 is something I noticed now after having read the Book of Mormon my whole life. 

My point is, this fits far better with the idea that Mormon was a real person who abridged records that he had in front of him and that he had already read and knew, rather than Joseph Smith having an incredible memory and taking such risks just because he could, always pulling it off and not mention it to anyone.

Zenos' allegory and Joseph Smith

I believe that Zenos' allegory in Jacob 5 is strong evidence of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon. The symbolism of trees and branches and fruit and connections to the House of Israel and Gentiles is also found in the Bible, both in the Old Testament (Isaiah 5) and the New Testament (Romans 11). But the descriptions found there are nowhere near the details about cultivating olive trees in Jacob 5, that happen to be accurately describing the process that happens to be quite complex. There is absolutely no reason to expect that a poor farmer in upstate New York should have detailed knowledge about it.

I will not create a long post about all the details, because they have already been written. Here is a great summary with further links. But just to mention a few examples of how Jacob 5 demonstrates detailed knowledge of growing olive trees:

• Olives come in two varieties: Wild and tame
• All of the fruit of the olive is borne on second‑year wood and the same wood does not bear again. For this reason a new crop of shoots each year is necessary for fruit set. With proper management, trees can be stimulated to produce young shoots. Zenos refers repeatedly to the process of pruning to stimulate fruit bearing.
• When the older rootstock of the main tree in Jacob 5 is rejuvenated by extensive grafting, it cannot keep up with the vigorous new growth of the wild stock (Jacob 5:37), and pruning and grafting are necessary as a corrective measure. The top can indeed overrun the roots as described in Jacob 5:37,48.
• In Jacob 5:65 it is stated, “And ye shall not clear away the bad thereof all at once, lest the roots thereof should be too strong for the graft, and the graft thereof shall perish, and I lose the trees of my vineyard.” If all of the branches were replaced at the same time, the tree and roots could be overstressed.
• The problem of "loftiness" described in Jacob 5:48 is a common problem with olive trees. It is when the tree is too tall and there is too much foliage for the roots to feed.
• One of the key elements of the allegory of Zenos is the image of taking cuttings from the tame tree and not just grafting them into other trees (Jacob 5:8–9) but clearing the ground (Jacob 5:44) and “planting” them elsewhere (Jacob 5:23, 24, 25, 54). These branches will take root (Jacob 5:54). The ancients relied principally upon propagation by slips, which is accomplished by taking stem pieces or cuttings of roots and burying them in an inclined position in trenches four inches deep. They normally sprout within a year. The olive is one of the few fruit trees that can be propagated by taking a branch of a tree and burying it in the ground.
• If the wood of the olive tree or some of its branches is dead, the best option may be for them to be “hewn down and cast into the fire” (Jacob 5:42). Dead wood is likely to have parasites and pathogens, and one of the best ways to reduce the inoculum potential is to burn the infested plant materials.
• It may seem puzzling but it was common to plant olive trees in vineyards
• In Jacob 5:30 the natural branches are described as having been broken off and wild branches grafted in. Because of this “all sorts of fruit did cumber the tree” and “there is none of it which is good” (Jacob 5:32). This could happen if the rootstock of an old tree was rejuvenated with grafts from wild trees who would bring much genetic variety resulting in all sorts of undesirable fruit.

There are many more examples. Not bad for someone who didn't know that Jerusalem had walls around it.

Another interesting aspect from one of the linked articles

Interestingly, much of this sophisticated technology was probably lost in Nephite civilization, for the olive is not mentioned again in the Book of Mormon after Jacob 5, an indication that the lands of the Book of Mormon may not have been suitable for growing olives. It seems reasonable to conjecture that given the importance of olives, Lehi and his group might have carried olives with them as they did other plants (1 Nephi 8:1; 16:11; 18:6). However, these references mention seeds, but not cuttings, and fruit-bearing olives are not usually grown from seeds. Warren reported that the strongest, heaviest bearing, and longest living trees are those grown from seed. But trees from seedlings tend to resemble wild forms, and the resultant fruit is normally unsuited for either oil or pickling. To have the desired quality of fruit, the tree must be cloned from a selected and proven cultivar. Moreover, with the very restrictive climatic requirements for olive production it is not surprising that there is no New World mention of olives in the Book of Mormon.

Witnesses of the Book of Mormon translation process

I am fascinated by the Book of Mormon translation. Joseph Smith himself gave very few details on the subject, but there are many other accounts that can help us puzzle the pieces together. Some say these accounts are contradictory with respect to some of the details, e.g. which stones he used. Personally, I think it is more a matter of describing different stages of an evolving process rather than contradictions and unreliable accounts, although you will always have some of that too when you have a large variety of first, second and third hand accounts. In this post, I will just quote some of my favorite lesser-known accounts describing the translation process.

When Joseph was translating the Book of Mormon [I] had occasion more than once to go into his immediate presence, and saw him engaged at his work of translation. The mode of procedure consisted in Joseph's placing the Seer Stone in the crown of a hat, then putting his face into the hat, so as to entirely cover his face, resting his elbows upon his knees, and then dictating word after word, while the scribes — Emma, John Whitmer, O. Cowdery, or some other wrote it down

-Michael Morse, Emma's brother-in-law

What I like about this account is the fact that it comes from Emma's brother-in-law, who never became a member of the church or was part of Joseph Smith's "inner circle". Yet, his description is very much in line with other descriptions. It makes the idea of some sort of conspiracy more unlikely (as if it was very likely in the first place...). It also shows that the translation was not happening behind locked doors, which is further emphazised in the next quote.

I cheerfully certify that I was familiar with the manner of Joseph Smith’s translating the Book of Mormon. He translated the most of it at my Father’s house. And I often sat by and saw and heard them translate and write for hours together. Joseph never had a curtain drawn between him and his scribe while he was translating. He would place the director in his hat, and then place his face in his hat, so as to exclude the light.

-Elizabeth Ann Whitmer, David Whitmer's sister, living in her parents house at the time where the second half of the translation was done

Notice "often sat by...for hours". A few accounts from the very first phase of the translation (pre-116 pages loss) talk about a curtain between Joseph Smith and the scribe because the plates were not to be seen. The curtain quickly disappears as these accounts change to the stone(s) in the hat (Urim and Thummim or seer stone). Several of those also affirm that the translation was an open process. When the plates were not used directly any longer, there was no need for a curtain and people other than the scribes could sit by and observe it all.

The tablets or plates were translated by Smith, who used a small oval or kidney-shaped stone, called Urim and Thummim, that seemed endowed with the marvelous power of converting the characters on the plates, when used by Smith, into English, who would then dictate to Cowdery what to write. Frequently one character would make two lines of manuscript, while others made but a word or two words. Mr. Whitmer emphatically asserts, as did Harris and Cowdery, that while Smith was dictating the translation he had no manuscript, notes or other means of knowledge save the seer-stone and the characters as shown on the plates, he being present and cognizant how it was done.

-Chicago tribune 1881, David Whitmer interview

I include this one because many critics try to argue that Joseph Smith had books, notes, maps, etc to help him along during the translation. The more well-known interview with Emma stating that he had no notes or manuscript is dismissed by the same critics because Emma was not honest about the sensitivie topic of polygamy and whatever she says about the Book of Mormon must also be a lie, even though what she says about the Book of Mormon translation in that interview is in line with other accounts. It turns out that Emma is not the only one to claim that Joseph Smith had no other means to help him. Also, there are zero known accounts stating that someone observed Joseph using any book, note or manuscript ever during the translation.

Others may come to different conclusions, but I don't need to read a lot of posts on this blog before I realize that the Book of Mormon is way too complex to make up on the fly or memorize without notes or manuscript.

Witnesses of the Book of Mormon plates

The testimonies of the 3 and 8 witnesses in the Book of Mormon are powerful. But I also like to read historical records containing their testimonies reaffirmed in various settings. All in all, I think the testimony from the witnesses is quite strong evidence that the plates actually existed. Critics have tended to be sloppy or dishonest with sources to fit their narrative of a visionary, dream-like experience. However, evaluating all sources and applying source criticism leads to another conclusion. Here are some facts

• There are about 200 historical records containing statements from the witnesses about seeing the plates. These include first, second and third hand accounts
• About 30 accounts are from Oliver Cowdrey, more than 70 accounts from David Whitmer and about 50 from Martin Harris. The rest are from the 8 witnesses. 
• About 8-10 of these 200 accounts (i.e. 5%) include wording like "eye of faith", "vision", "spiritual eyes" or similar. These are the ones critics like to highlight. None of them, however, are first hand accounts, and the source is usually a contemporary critic of the church like Warren Parrish after apostatizing or John A. Clark, a former pastor who considered Joseph Smith a fraud.
• All 11 witnesses publicly reaffirmed their testimony as printed in the beginning of the Book of Mormon and some went out of their way to correct false rumours and newspaper articles claiming that they had denied their testimonies

We cannot get into all the details here, but Richard Lloyd Anderson's book, "Investigating the Book of Mormon witnesses", is a great resource. Anderson also presents at the FairMormon conference here. A few accounts are given below.

It was a clear, open beautiful day, far from any inhabitants, in a remote field, at the time we saw the record, of which it has been spoken, brought and laid before us, by an angel, arrayed in glorious light, [who] ascend [descended I suppose] out of the midst of heaven. Now if this is human juggling—judge ye

-Oliver Cowdery and Martin Harris, in letter dated 29 November 1829 

I saw [the Nephite artifacts] just as plain as I see this bed (striking his hand upon the bed beside him), and I heard the voice of the Lord, as distinctly as I ever heard anything in my life.

-David Whitmer, reported in The Latter-day Saints' Millennial Star Vol. 40 

Gentlemen, do you see that hand? Are you sure you see it? Are your eyes playing a trick or something? No. Well, as sure as you see my hand so sure did I see the angel and the plates.

-Martin Harris, Statement of William M. Glenn, cited in Deseret News, Oct. 2, 1943

Therefore I desire to testify to all that will come to the knowledge of this address; that I have most assuredly seen the plates from whence the book of Mormon is translated, and that I have handled these plates, and know of a surety that Joseph Smith, jr. has translated the book of Mormon by the gift and power of God

-John Whitmer, "Address To the patrons of the Latter Day Saints' Messenger and Advocate" (March 1836) 

Etc.

Layers of evidence of autheniticity in 1 Nephi 16

Many readers might already know that Nahom is based on a Hebrew root associated with consolation and sorrow and this was the name of the place where Ishmael was buried in 1 Nephi 16. When Ishmael is buried, his daughters "mourn exceedingly", which displays a clever wordplay. This is, however, only one of several markers of Book of Mormon authenticity in this passage. In 1 Nephi 16:34-35, we read

34 And it came to pass that Ishmael died, and was buried in the place which was called Nahom.

35 And it came to pass that the daughters of Ishmael did mourn exceedingly, because of the loss of their father

This short passage contains layers of evidence of Book of Mormon authenticity

• Geographical 1: An ancient burial site called Nahom is found in the area where it is believed the group would be at this point of their journey.
• Geographical 2: This one is depending on later passages as well. After Ismael's death at Nahom, they journey "nearly eastward" (2 Nephi 17:1) until they get to the coast and they call the place Bountiful. Its description sounds like nothing else on the Arabian peninsula and indeed there is a small location at the coast, east of Nahom, very unique and fitting all the many specific criteria that are very unusual for this part of the world.
• Hebrew language 1: As mentioned, the Hebrew 'nhm' root means consolation or sorrow and the Hebrew word-play here is evident
• Hebrew language 2: There is another lesser-known word-play. Ishmael means 'God hears' in Hebrew and the Old Testament also makes a pun on this name. In Genesis 21:17, "God heard the voice of the lad [Ishmael]". In this Book of Mormon passage, 'God hears' died. So "did mourn exceedingly, because of the loss of their father [Ishmael]", could be read as "did mourn exceedingly because they felt that God didn't hear them anymore". Clever!
• Culture: Hugh Nibley points out that in the ancient desert culture, it is the daughters/women who mourn

The end of Mormon's abridgment

When Mormon abridges the records and gets to the end of a book, he often writes something like "and thus ended the record of x", always in the past tense. See for instance

• Alma 44:24: "And thus ended the record of Alma, which was written upon the plates of Nephi." 

• Alma 63:17: "And thus ended the account of Alma, and Helaman his son, and also Shiblon, who was his son."

• Helaman 15:25: "And thus ended the book of Helaman, according to the record of Helaman and his sons."

In the last verse in 4th Nephi, he writes: 

And thus is the end of the record of Ammaron. 

What is noticeable about this is the shift to present tense. It is subtle, yet distinct. It makes a lot of sense because Ammaron is the last one to write on the plates before Mormon. In other words, Mormon is now done with the abridgment, so this is it, this is the end. On the other hand, if it's Joseph Smith making it all up (which I obviously don't believe), it’s just very clever!

The Remarkable Internal Consistency of the Book of Mormon -- a (Growing) List

Like the analogy of the flaxen cord, no single example of internal consistency in the text of the Book of Mormon is monumental.  However, if you take the time to add up the number of details the author of the text needs to keep track of throughout, this type of evidence is very compelling.

This (growing) list is a work in progress. I encourage you to take the time to look up each of these details and see them in the text for yourself. Then ask yourself these important question about who wrote the book and how they wrote it:

• Is it reasonable to conclude that one man spontaneously dictated this text in 3 months?
• Is it possible that a 23 year old uneducated day laborer with no significant writing experience crafted this text in a single draft?
• If Joseph Smith is not the author of the Book of Mormon, who wrote it and how?

Another note, this list relies partially on the very excellent work by Stisa, a contributor on this blog, and I include examples from his compilation with his permission. (Note that entries involving more than one book may show up at least twice on the list below.)

Examples from Mosiah

Internal Consistency between descriptions of Alma the Younger's conversion and his words to his fellow missionaries (Mosiah 27 and Alma 29/36).

Internal Consistency between Mosiah 27:16 and Alma 5/29/36 -- Alma's obedience to the Angel

Internal Consistency between Ether 11, Omni 1, Mosiah 21, and Alma 22 -- "Dry Bones"

Internal Consistency between Ether 4 and Mosiah 8 and Mosiah 28 -- The Jaredite records.

Examples from Alma

Internal Consistency between Mosiah 27:16 and Alma 5/29/36 -- Alma's obedience to the Angel
Internal Consistency between Alma 1 and Alma 15 -- "The profession of Nehor"

Lehi's Genealogy, 1 Nephi 5:14-16 (with Internal Consistency between Jacob 2:25 and Alma 10:3)

Internal Consistency between descriptions of Alma the Younger's conversion and his words to his fellow missionaries (Mosiah 27 and Alma 29/36).

Internal Consistency between Alma 36:22 and 1 Nephi 1:8 (Alma the Younger quotes Lehi)

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 16:29 and Alma 37

Internal Consistency between Mosiah 1 and Alma 37 -- Instructions from keepers of the records/artifacts

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 16:10 and Alma 37:43-46

Internal Consistency between Ether 11, Omni 1, Mosiah 21, and Alma 22 -- "Dry Bones"

Examples from Helaman

Examples from 3 Nephi

Internal consistency between 3 Nephi 28, 4 Nephi, and Mormon 8--descriptions of the three Nephites.

Examples from 4 Nephi

Internal consistency between 3 Nephi 28, 4 Nephi, and Mormon 8--descriptions of the three Nephites.

Examples from Mormon

Internal consistency between 3 Nephi 28, 4 Nephi, and Mormon 8--descriptions of the three Nephites.

Internal consistency between the writings of Moroni (Mormon 8) while finishing his father's record and the words of the Angel Moroni to Joseph Smith.

Examples from Ether

Internal Consistency between Ether 11, Omni 1, Mosiah 21, and Alma 22 -- "Dry Bones"

Internal Consistency throughout the Book of Ether

Internal Consistency between Ether 4 and Mosiah 8 and Mosiah 28 -- The Jaredite records.

Examples from Moroni

Examples from 1 Nephi

Internal Consistency between Alma 36:22 and 1 Nephi 1:8 (Alma the Younger quotes Lehi)

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 1:17 and 1 Nephi 10:1

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 2:20 and 1 Nephi 4:14

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 3:29 and 1 Nephi 7:10

Lehi's Genealogy, 1 Nephi 5:14-16 (with Internal Consistency between Jacob 2:25 and Alma 10:3)

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 16:29 and Alma 37

Internal Consistency between 1 Nephi 16:10 and Alma 37:43-46

Examples from 2 Nephi

Examples from Jacob

Lehi's Genealogy, 1 Nephi 5:14-16 (with Internal Consistency between Jacob 2:25 and Alma 10:3)

Examples from Enos, Jarom, Omni, and Words of Mormon

Internal Consistency between Ether 11, Omni 1, Mosiah 21, and Alma 22 -- "Dry Bones"

Intertextual Connections between descriptions of Alma the Younger's conversion and his words to his fellow missionaries.

In Alma 29:1-2 Alma the Younger speaks of a desire to be like an angel:

1 O that I were an angel, and could have the wish of mine heart, that I might go forth and speak with the trump of God, with a voice to shake the earth, and cry repentance unto every people!
2 Yea, I would declare unto every soul, as with the voice of thunder, repentance and the plan of redemption, that they should repent and come unto our God, that there might not be more sorrow upon all the face of the earth.

Notice the similarities between these words and the description of the angel who called him to repentance:

"voice of thunder, which caused the earth to shake upon which they stood" (Mosiah 27:11)

and here:

"he spake unto us, as it were the voice of thunder, and the whole earth did tremble beneath our feet" (Alma 36:7)

Hat Tip Daniel Peterson.

Intertextual Connections between King Benjamin and Samuel the Lamanite

In Helaman 14:12, Samuel the Lamanite says:

12 And also that ye might know of the coming of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Father of heaven and of earth, the Creator of all things from the beginning; and that ye might know of the signs of his coming, to the intent that ye might believe on his name.

Compare this with King Benjamin's words in Mosiah 3:8:

8 And he shall be called Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Father of heaven and earth, the Creator of all things from the beginning; and his mother shall be called Mary.